· authority

The ability of the government to exercise power without resorting to violence.

· authorization

A formal declaration by a congressional committee that a certain amount of money is available to an agency.

· autocracy

A regime in which the government holds all the power.

· bad-tendency rule

A rule to judge if speech can be limited: If the speech could lead to some sort of “evil,” it can be prohibited.

· Bakke case

This Supreme Court Case decided in 1978 that affirmative action is legal as long as race is not the only factor considered.

· balanced budget

When a government spends exactly as much as it takes in.

· bicameral legislature

A legislature with two houses.

· bilateral

A state acting in cooperation with another state.

· bill

A proposed law or policy.

· bill of attainder

A bill passed by the legislature that declares a person guilty of a crime.

· Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, which safeguard some specific rights of the American people and the states.

· Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act

A law passed in 2002 that banned soft money, put limits on issue advertising, and increased the amount people can donate to candidates; also called the McCain-Feingold bill.

· bipolar system

An international system characterized by two superpowers that roughly balance each other.

· blanket primary

A primary in which voters can choose candidates from more than one party; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

· block grant

A grant-in-aid with few restrictions or rules about how it can be spent.

· blog

A weblog on the Internet; the thoughts and opinions of a person or group posted online.

· brief

A document submitted to a court that presents one side’s argument in a case.

· broadcast media

Media that is distributed over the airwaves.

· Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

Supreme Court case that ended segregation and declared “separate but equal” to be unconstitutional.

· bundling

The practice of lumping campaign donations from several donors together.

· bureaucracy

An administrative way of organizing large numbers of people to work together; usually relies on specialization, hierarchy, and standard operating procedure.

· buying power

One’s ability to purchase things; it is undermined by inflation.

· cabinet

A group, composed of the heads of federal departments and key agencies, that advises the president.

· caesaropapism

The belief that the powers of church and state should be united in one person.

· candidate-centered politics

Campaigns and politics that focus on the candidates, not party labels.

· case law

The collection of court decisions that shape law.

· casework

Work done by a member of Congress or his or her staff on behalf of constituents.

· categorical grants

Money given for a specific purpose that comes with restrictions concerning how the money should be spent. There are two types of categorical grants: project grants and formula grants.

· caucus

A gathering of political leaders to make decisions, such as which candidate to nominate for an office; set policy; and plot strategy.

· census

Counting the population to determine representation in the House of Representatives; the constitution mandates one every ten years.

· central bank

The institution with the power to implement monetary policy.

· centralization

the process by which law- and policymaking becomes centrally located.

· centrally planned economy

An economy where all decisions are made by the government.

· charter

A document issued by state government granting certain powers and responsibilities to a local government.

· checks and balances

The ability of different branches of government to stop each other from acting; designed to prevent one branch from gaining too much power.

· chief of state

The ceremonial head of government; in the United States, the president serves as chief of state.

· citizen

A legal member of a political unit.

· civic education

Education geared toward training the young to be good citizens.

· civil liberties

Individual freedoms that the government cannot take away, including free speech, freedom of religion, and the rights of the accused.

· civil rights

The rights of equality under the law.

· Civil Rights Act of 1964

The major civil rights legislation in the modern era, the Civil Rights Act banned discrimination and segregation in public accommodations.

· Civil Rights Cases

Supreme Court decision in 1883 that said the Fourteenth Amendment only made discrimination by government illegal; private citizens could do as they pleased.

· civil service

Government employees hired and promoted based on merit, not political connections.

· Civil Service Commission

The first federal personnel agency.

· Civil Service Reform Act of 1883

Law that established the federal civil service; also known as the Pendleton Act.

· Civil Service Reform Act of 1978

Law that updated and reformed the civil service.

· civil society

The network of community relationships that builds social capital.

· civil war

A war fought within a single country between or among different groups of citizens who want to control the government and do not recognize another group’s right to rule.

· classical conservatism

A view that arose in opposition to classical liberalism; it claimed that tradition was very valuable, human reason limited, and stability essential.

· classical liberalism

A view that arose in the early modern era in Europe; it argues for the value of the individual, the necessity for freedom, the importance of rationalism, and the value of the free market.

· clear-and-present danger

A limit on free speech stipulating that speech that constitutes a “clear and present danger” can be banned.

· closed primary

A primary in which the voter must belong to the party in which he or she participates.

· closed rule

A rule on a bill, issued by the House Rules Committee, which limits or bans amendments during floor debate.

· cloture

A motion to end debate in the Senate, it must be approved by sixty votes.

· codetermination

A policy used in some states with strong social democratic parties that forces large corporations to have substantial representation from the workers on the board of directors

· command economy

An economy where all decisions are made by the government.

· commerce clause

A clause in Article I, Section 8, of the U.S. Constitution that grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce.

· common-carrier role

The media’s role as an intermediary between the people and the government.

· common law

A system of law, originally from England, in which previous decisions guide judges in interpreting the law.

· communism

An extreme form of socialism that advocates violent revolution to create a socialist state.

· comparative politics

An academic discipline that compares states in order to understand how they work.

· concurrent powers

Powers exercised simultaneously by the states and the federal government.

· concurring opinion

An opinion issued by a judge who votes with the winning side but disagrees with the majority or plurality opinion.

· confederacy

A loose relationship among a number of smaller political units.

· confederate system

A system of government with a very weak central government and strong states.

· conformism

A tendency for people to act the same way, watch the same television programs, read the same books, and so on.

· constituency

The people in a district represented by a legislator.

· constitution

A set of rules that govern how power will be distributed and used legitimately in a state.

· constitutional democracy

A type of government characterized by limitations on government power spelled out in a constitution.

· constitutional government

A regime in which the use of power is limited by law.

· constitutional powers

Powers of the president granted explicitly by the Constitution.

· continuing resolution

A measure passed by Congress that temporarily funds an agency while Congress completes its budget.

· conventional participation

Political participation in activities deemed appropriate by most; includes voting, donating to a campaign, and writing letters to officeholders.

· convention delegate

A party member or official who goes to the national convention to vote for the party’s presidential nominee and to ratify the party’s platform.

· cooperative federalism

A term used to describe federalism for most of the twentieth century (and into the twenty-first), where the federal government and the states work closely together and are intertwined; also known as marble-cake federalism.

· corrupt practices acts

A series of laws in the early twentieth century that were the first attempts to regulate campaign finance.

· credentials committee

Party officials who decide which delegates may participate in the national convention.

· critical election

An election that marks the advent of a realignment.

· dealignment

The loosening of party ties as more voters see themselves as independents.

· decision

A document issued by the court stating who wins the case.

· Declaration of Independence

The document written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that broke the colonies away from British rule.

· de facto segregation

Segregation that exists due to economic and residential patterns, not because of law.

· defamation of character

Unfairly hurting a person’s reputation.

· deficit spending

When a government intentionally spends more money than it takes in.

· de jure segregation

Segregation imposed by law.

· delegated powers

Powers granted by Congress to help the president fulfill his duties.

· demand-side economics

An approach to economic policy that stresses stimulation of demand by putting more money in the hands of consumers.

· democracy

Rule by the people.

· democratic socialism

A peaceful form of socialism that works within democratic governments to attain socialism gradually.

· demosclerosis

The inability of the U.S. government to get anything significant done because interest groups block all major change.

· denial of power

Declaring that a certain person or group does not have a particular power.

· depression

A severe economic downturn that lasts a long time; more serious than a recession.

· deregulation

The repeal or reduction of regulations in order to boost efficiency, increase competitiveness, and benefit consumers.

· deterrence

Threatening to use military force to prevent another state from taking a particular course of action.

· devolution

The process of the national government giving responsibilities and powers to state, local, or regional governments.

· dictatorship

An absolute government in which one person holds all the power and uses it for his or her own self-interest.

· diplomacy

The act of negotiating and dealing with other nations in the world, trying to achieve goals without force.

· direct democracy

A government in which the people come together to vote on all important issues.

· discharge petition

A measure in the House that forces a bill out of a committee for consideration by the whole House.

· dissenting opinion

A court opinion written by the losing side that explains why it disagrees with the decision.

· diversity

A mix of different cultural and religious traditions and values.

· divided government

A situation in which one party controls the presidency, while the other controls at least one house of Congress.

· divine right theory of kingship

The view that the monarch is chosen by God to rule with absolute power over a country.

· division of labor

The practice of dividing a job into smaller component parts and assigning one person or group to do each part.

· dual federalism

A term to describe federalism through most of the nineteenth century, where the federal and state governments each had their own issue areas, which rarely overlapped; also known as layer-cake federalism.

· due process clause

Part of the Fourteenth Amendment, which declares that no person can be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.

· duopoly

A term to describe the overwhelming power of the two major parties in American politics.

· Earned Income Tax Credit

A federal welfare program that refunds all or part of a poor family’s social security tax.

· economic aid

Assistance to other countries designed to help the recipient’s economy.

· economic group

An interest group that seeks material benefits for its members.

· economic growth

The expansion of the economy, leading to the creation of more jobs and more wealth.

· effective tax rate

The actual percentage of one’s income that one pays in taxes, after deductions and tax credits.

· elastic clause

Clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution that says the Congress has the power to do anything that is necessary and proper in order to carry out its explicit powers; also called the necessary and proper clause.

· elector

A member of the Electoral College.

· Electoral College

The body that elects the president of the United States; composed of electors from each state equal to that state’s representation in Congress; a candidate must get a majority of electoral votes to win.

· elitism/elite theory

The view that a small capable group should rule over the rest.

· emergency powers

Inherent powers exercised by the president to deal with emergencies.

· empire

A state that governs more than one national group, usually as a result of conquest.

· enabling legislation

A law passed by Congress that lays out the general purposes and powers of an agency but grants the agency the power to determine the details of how it implements policy.

· entitlement program

A program under which the federal government is obligated to pay a specified benefit to people who meet certain requirements.

· enumerated powers

The powers specifically given to Congress in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution.

· environmental impact statement

A statement that must be prepared by the federal government prior to acting that describes how the environment will be affected.

· environmentalism

The belief that humans have an obligation to protect the world from the excesses of human habitation, including pollution and the destruction of wilderness.

· equality of opportunity

When all people are given the same chances to compete and achieve so that those with talent and diligence will succeed, whereas others will not.

· equality of outcome

When all people achieve the same result, regardless of talent or effort.

· equal protection clause

Part of the Fourteenth Amendment, which states that states must give all citizens the equal protection of the law.

· Equal Rights Amendment

A proposed amendment that would end gender discrimination; it failed to be ratified.

· equal time rule

A broadcast media regulation that requires media outlets to give equal amounts of time to opposing candidates in an election.

· equity

When all parties to a transaction are treated fairly.

· establishment clause

A part of the First Amendment that forbids government establishment of religion.

· excess demand

An economic situation in which the demand for something exceeds the supply.

· exclusionary rule

A legal rule that excludes from trial evidence obtained in an illegal search.

· executive leadership

The view that the president should have strong influence over the bureaucracy.

· Executive Office of the President

A set of agencies that work closely with the president to help him perform his job.

· executive order

An order issued by the president that has the effect of law.

· executive privilege

The right of officials of the executive branch to refuse to disclose some information to other branches of government or to the public.

· ex post facto law

A law that declares something illegal after it has been done.

· expressed powers

The specific powers given to Congress or the president by the Constitution; also called the enumerated powers.

· fairness doctrine

A broadcast media regulation that requires a broadcaster that airs a controversial program to also provide airtime to people with an opposing view.

· faithless elector

An elector who votes for someone other than the candidate who won the most votes in the state.

· fascism

Ideology from Italy that stresses national unity, a strong expansionist military, and absolute rule by one party.

· federal budget

A document detailing how the federal government will spend money during a fiscal year.

· Federal Communications Commission

The federal agency that regulates the broadcast media.

· Federal Election Campaign Act

A law, passed in 1971, that limited expenditures on media advertising and required disclosure of donations above $100; made more stringent following the Watergate scandal.

· Federal Election Commission

The independent agency established in 1974 to enforce campaign finance laws.

· federalism

A system of government in which power is shared by national and state governments.

· Federal Register

A federal publication that lists all executive orders.

· federal reserve bank

The name of the central bank of the United States; often called the Fed.

· federal system

A system of government where power is shared between the central government and state and local governments.

· feminism

The belief that women are equal to men and should be treated equally by the law.

· filibuster

A Senate tactic; a senator in the minority on a bill holds the floor (in effect shutting down the Senate) until the majority backs down and kills the bill.

· First Continental Congress

A gathering of representatives from all thirteen colonies in 1774; it called for a total boycott of British goods in protest against taxes.

· fiscal federalism

The practice of states spending federal money to help administer national programs.

· fiscal policy

How the government influences the economy through taxing, borrowing, and spending.

· fiscal year

A twelve-month period (which does not coincide with the calendar year) used for accounting and budget purposes by the federal government.

· 527 groups

A political organization, not affiliated with a party, that can raise and spend soft money; named after a section of the Internal Revenue Code.

· flat taxes

A taxation system in which everyone is charged the same rate, regardless of income.

· food stamps

Coupons issued by the government that can be used to purchase food.

· foreign policy

A state’s international goals and its strategies to achieve those goals.

· formalized rules

Another term for standard operating procedure.

· formula grants

Grants in which a formula is used to determine how much money each state receives.

· framers

The men who wrote the Constitution.

· franking

The ability of members of Congress to mail informational literature to constituents free of charge.

· free exercise clause

The part of the First Amendment that forbids the government from interfering in the free exercise of religion.

· free rider

A person who benefits from an interest group’s efforts without actually contributing to those efforts.

· front-loading

Moving primaries up in the campaign calendar so that many primaries are held early in the campaign.

· front-runner

The candidate perceived to be in the lead in an election campaign.

· full faith and credit clause

A clause in Article IV of the Constitution that declares that state governments must give full faith and credit to other state governments’ decisions.

· fundamentalism

The belief that a religious document is infallible and literally true.

· gag order

An order by a court to block people from talking or writing about a trial.

· gender discrimination

Treating people differently and unequally because of gender.

· general election

An election contest between all party nominees and independent candidates; the winner becomes a member of Congress.

· general jurisdiction

A court’s power to hear cases, which is mostly unrestricted.

· gerrymandering

The term used to describe the process by which the party that controls the state government uses redistricting to its own political advantage.

· Gibbons v. Ogden

An 1824 Supreme Court case that gave the federal government extensive powers through the commerce clause.

· Gideon v. Wainwright

Supreme Court case of 1963 that ordered governments to provide an attorney to criminal defendants who cannot afford one.

· globalization

The trend toward the breakdown of state borders and the rise of international and global organizations and governments.

· government

The organization of power within a country.

· Government Accountability Office

Congress’s main investigative agency, the GAO investigates operations of government agencies as part of congressional oversight.

· government bond

A promissory note issued by the government to pay back the purchase price plus interest.

· government corporation

A federal agency that operates like a corporation (following business practices and charging for services) but receives some federal funding.

· grandfather clause

A voting law that stated that a person could vote if his grandfather was eligible to vote prior to 1867; designed to keep blacks from voting.

· grant-in-aid

A general term to describe federal aid given to the states for a particular matter.

· grant of power

Declaring that a certain person or group has a specific power.

· grassroots activism

Efforts to influence the government by mobilizing large numbers of people.

· Great Compromise

The compromise plan on representation in the constitutional convention; it created a bicameral legislature with representation determined by population in one house and equality in the other; also known as the Connecticut Compromise.

· gross domestic product

The total value of all economic transactions within a state.

· guerrilla war

A war in which one or both combatants use small, lightly armed militia units rather than professional, organized armies; guerrilla fighters usually seek to topple their government, often enjoying the support of the people.

· gun control

Policies that aim at regulating and reducing the use of firearms.

· Hatch Act

A law passed in 1939 that restricts the participation of federal civil servants in political campaigns.

· hierarchy

An arrangement of power with a small number of people at the top issuing orders through a chain of command to lower-level workers; each person is responsible to someone above him or her.

· home rule

The granting of significant autonomy to local governments by state governments.

· home style

The way a member of Congress behaves in his or her district.

· honeymoon period

The first few months of an administration in which the public, members of Congress, and the media tend to give the president their goodwill.

· horizontal federalism

How state governments relate to one another.

· hyperpluralism

The idea that there are too many interest groups competing for benefits.

· idealism

The view that states should act in the global arena to promote moral causes and use ethical means to achieve them.

· ideology

A set of beliefs a person holds that shape the way he or she behaves and sees the world.

· illegal participation

Political activity that includes illegal actions, such as sabotage or assassination.

· impeachment

The power of the House of Representatives to charge an officeholder with crimes; the Senate then holds a trial to determine if the officeholder should be expelled from office.

· implementation

The act of putting laws into practice.

· implied powers

Powers given to the national government by the necessary and proper clause.

· income distribution

The way income is distributed among the population.

· income transfer

A government action that takes money from one part of the citizenry and gives it to another part; usually the transfer goes from the well-off to the poor.

· incorporation

The practice of federal courts forcing state governments to abide by the Bill of Rights.

· incrementalism

The tendency of policy in the United States to change gradually, in small ways, rather than dramatically.

· independent

A person who does not feel affiliation for any party.

· independent executive agency

A federal agency that is not part of any department; its leader reports directly to the president.

· independent regulatory agency

A federal agency charged with regulating some part of the economy; in theory, such agencies are independent of Congress and the president.

· individualism

The idea that all people are different and should be able to make their own choices.

· inflation

The increase of prices.

· informational benefits

The educational benefits people derive from belonging to an interest group and learning more about the issues they care about.

· inherent powers

The powers inherent to the national government because the United States is a sovereign nation.

· in-kind subsidies

Government aid to poor people that is not given as cash but in forms such as food stamps and rent vouchers.

· inside game

Interest groups’ efforts to influence government by direct and close contact with government officials; also known as lobbying.

· interest group

An organization of people who share a common interest and work together to protect and promote that interest by influencing the government.

· international agreement

An understanding between states to restrict their behavior and set up rules governing international affairs.

· internationalism

The view that the United States should play an active role in world affairs.

· international law

A set of agreements, traditions, and norms built up over time that restricts what states can do; not always binding.

· international organization

An institution set up by agreements between nations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.

· international system

The basic structures that affect how states relate to one another, including rules and traditions.

· Internet media

Media that is distributed online.

· interpretive reporting

Reporting that states the facts along with analysis and interpretation.

· intervention

When a state sends military forces to help a country that is already at war.

· iron triangle

An alliance of groups with an interest in a policy area: bureaucrats from the relevant agency, legislators from appropriate committees, and interest groups affected by the issue.

· isolationism

The view that the United States should largely ignore the rest of the world.

· issue advertising

Advertising, paid for by outside groups, that can criticize or praise a candidate but not explicitly say “vote for X” or “vote against X.”

· issue network

A collection of actors who agree on a policy and work together to shape policy.

· Jim Crow laws

Laws passed by southern states that imposed inequality and segregation on blacks.

· Joint Chiefs of Staff

A group that helps the president make strategy decisions and evaluates the needs and capabilities of the military.

· judicial activism

A judicial philosophy that argues courts must take an active positive role to remedy wrongs in the country.

· judicial implementation

The process of enforcing a court’s ruling.

· judicial philosophy

A set of ideas that shape how a judge or lawyer interprets the law and the Constitution.

· judicial restraint

A judicial philosophy that believes the court’s responsibility is to interpret the law, not set policy.

· judicial review

The power of the courts to declare laws and presidential actions unconstitutional.

· jurisdiction

A court’s power to hear cases of a particular type.

· justiciable question

A matter that the courts can review.

· just-war theory

A theory of ethics that defines when war is morally permissible and what means of warfare are justified.

· Keynesian economics

A demand-side economic policy, first presented by John Maynard Keynes after World War I, that encouraged deficit spending by governments during economic recessions in order to provide jobs and boost income.

· kitchen cabinet

An informal name for the president’s closest advisers.

· Kyoto Protocol

An international treaty aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

· laissez-faire capitalism

The economic philosophy that the government should not interfere with the economy.

· lawmaking

The power to make rules that are binding on all people in a society.

· layer-cake federalism

A term used to describe federalism through most of the nineteenth century, in which the federal and state governments each had their own issue areas, that rarely overlapped; also known as dual federalism.

· legislative agenda

A series of laws a person wishes to pass.

· legitimacy

Acceptance by citizens of the government.

· Lemon test

A three-part test to determine if the establishment clause has been violated; named for the 1971 case Lemon v. Kurtzman.

· libel

Printing false statements that defame a person’s character.

· liberalism

A theory of international relations that deemphasizes the importance of military power in favor of economic power, trade, and international institutions.

· libertarianism

The belief that government should be small and most decisions left up to the individual.

· liberty

The freedom to do what one chooses as long as one does not harm or limit the freedom of other people.

· limited government

A government that places few restrictions on its citizens’ choices and actions, and in which the government is limited in what it can do.

· limited jurisdiction

A court’s power to hear only certain kinds of cases.

· limited war

A war fought primarily between professional armies to achieve specific political objectives without causing widespread destruction.

· line-item veto

A special type of veto that the president can use to strike the specific parts of the bill he or she dislikes without rejecting the entire bill.

· line organization

In the government bureaucracy, an agency whose head reports directly to the president.

· literacy test

Historically, a test that must be passed before a person can vote; designed to prevent blacks from voting.

· lobbying

Attempting to persuade government officials through direct contact via persuasion and the provision of material benefits; also known as the inside game.

· logrolling

A practice in Congress where two or more members agree to support each other’s bills.

· loophole

A part of a tax code that allows individuals or businesses to reduce their tax burden.

· loose constructionism

A judicial philosophy that believes the Constitution should be interpreted in an open way, not limited to things explicitly stated.

· machine

A very strong party organization that turns favors and patronage into votes.

· Madisonian Model

A structure of government proposed by James Madison that avoided tyranny by separating power among different branches and building checks and balances into the Constitution.

· majority leader

(1) In the House, the second-ranking member of the majority party; (2) in the Senate, the highest-ranking member of the majority party.

· majority opinion

A court opinion that reflects the reasoning of the majority of justices.

· majority party

In a legislative body, the party with more than half of the seats.

· majority rule

The idea that the government should act in accordance with the will of the majority of people.

· malapportionment

An apportionment of seats in Congress that is unfair due to population shifts.

· mandate

When the federal government requires states to do certain things.

· mandatory retirement

An employment policy that states that when an employee reaches a certain age, he or she must retire.

· marble-cake federalism

A term used to describe federalism for most of the twentieth century (and into the twenty-first), where the federal government and the states work closely together and are intertwined; also known as cooperative federalism.

· markup

When a Congressional committee revises a bill in session.

· material incentive

The lure of a concrete benefit, usually money, that attracts people to join a group.

· McCain-Feingold bill

The popular informal name for the Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002; it is named after its sponsors, Republican John McCain and Democrat Russell Feingold.

· McCulloch v. Maryland

A Supreme Court case that granted the federal government extensive power to carry out its enumerated powers.

· means-testing

Basing benefits from a policy on a person’s wealth so that poor people get more benefits than rich people.

· media

Information and the organizations that distribute that information to the public.

· media consolidation

The trend toward a few large corporations owning most of the media outlets in the country.

· merit system

The practice of hiring and promoting people based on skill.

· Merit System Protection Board

A board that investigates charges of wrongdoing in the federal civil service.

· midterm election

A congressional election that does not coincide with a presidential election.

· military aid

Assistance to other countries designed to strengthen the recipient’s military.

· military-industrial complex

The alliance of defense contractors, the military, and some members of Congress that promotes a large defense budget in order to profit themselves.

· minority leader

In both the House and Senate, the leader of the minority party.

· minority party

In a legislative body, the party with fewer than half of the seats.

· Miranda v. Arizona

A 1966 case in which the Supreme Court ruled that police must inform suspects of their rights when arrested.

· mixed economy

An economy that includes elements of the free market and central planning.

· monarchy

A regime in which all power is held by a single person.

· monetary policy

An economic policy that seeks to control the supply of money in the economy.

· monopolistic model

A view of the bureaucracy that says bureaucracies have no incentive to reform or improve performance because they face no competition.

· Monroe Doctrine

An American policy, set by President James Monroe in 1823, that claims America’s right to intervene in the affairs of Western Hemisphere nations.